Writing is the communication of ideas using symbols (Crystal, 2003). Effective written communication is a two-way process. It presents main ideas, details to support main points, and coherent thoughts. Different forms of writing may vary in objectives. Writing is important as it accumulates and transmits information and knowledge across time and distance. It safeguards and conveys information across time and space, independently of human memory and limitations (Ong, 1982).
Issues like language deficiencies, errors, unclear messaging, and personal barriers can make writing difficult (Graham & Perin, 2007). People may dislike writing due to the following reasons:
One’s weaknesses (language deficiencies)
Too much information
Too many errors and mistakes
Cultural, social, and personal barriers
Unclear or not precise
Wrong medium or format
Past experiences
Unstructured or unorganised documents
Lack of ideas
Without proper writing/typing instruments
Academic writing is clear, concise, precise, systematic, and evidence-based. Its objective is to improve the reader's comprehension. It has a formal tone and style employed in universities and academic publications, but it is not sophisticated and does not necessitate using long phrases or complex language. A proficient writer must be able to write in decent and standard English, express meaningful ideas concisely, use a wide range of vocabulary precisely, and compose a coherent essay cohesively.
A. Tips for Writing a Sentence Solutions
1. Clause Types
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. Clauses are the building blocks of sentences that can be divided into independent and dependent clauses.
a. Independent Clause
An independent clause is a complete idea. It is a stand-alone sentence consisting of a subject, a verb, and often a complement or object. The object impacts the subject's action, but the complement is a component that follows the verb and gives further information about the subject or object.
b. Dependent Clause (Subordinate)
A dependent clause is an incomplete idea. It is a sentence fragment that consists of a subordinator, a subject, and a verb. It requires an independent clause to form a complete thought (Azar & Hagen, 2009). Subordinators are subordinating conjunctions, including relative pronouns that introduce dependent clauses (subordinates) such as after, although, as, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, so that, in case, once, only, since, so, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while. The three dependent clauses are noun clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause.
2. Sentence Types
A sentence is a group of words formed by one or more clauses to express a complete idea. There are four types of sentences based on purposes: declarative, exclamatory, imperative, and interrogatory. If it is based on structure, the four types of sentences are simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.
These four types of sentences based on the structure are determined based on the clause types used to form the sentence. Recognising different types of sentences can convey your intended message more meaningfully and diversely. It contributes to a better writing style.
a. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is an independent clause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a complete thought. It also can contain compound elements: compound subject, compound verb, and compound object. The sentence Rachel and Ruby live and work in Penang is a simple sentence because there is only one complete idea or thought.
b. Compound Sentence
If the sentence Rachel lives in Penang, and Ruby works there too, it is a compound sentence as there are two separate complete thoughts, combined by coordinators or coordinating conjunction. Two independent clauses can be joined by coordinators, known as FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (Strunk & White, 2000). Each segment by itself can make a complete sentence. A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses (IC) joined together in three ways:
With a coordinator: IC, + coordinator + IC
Use a comma after the first independent clause.
Rachel lives in Penang, so you can meet her there.
With a conjunctive adverb: IC; + conjunctive adverb, + IC
Use a semicolon before and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
Some transitional signals acting like conjunctive adverbs are on the other hand, as a result, and for example.
Rachel lives in Penang; thus, you can meet her there.
With a semicolon: IC; IC
Use semicolons only between two independent clauses that are closely related.
Rachel lives in Penang; Ruby lives there too.
c. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause (the more important idea) and one or more dependent clauses (the less important idea). The dependent clauses are adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses.
An adverb clause acts as an adverb and begins with a subordinator that can exist before or after an independent clause; for example, Rachel lived in Penang when I was ten years old. (The clause "when I was ten years old" modifies the verb "lived" by indicating the time.)
An adjective clause acts as an adjective to describe a noun or pronoun which begins with a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose) or a relative adverb (where and when) and follows the noun or pronoun it describes; for example, Rachel, who is my sister, lives in Penang. (The clause "who is my sister" describes the noun "Rachel.")
A noun clause acts as a noun that can be the independent clause's subject or object. It begins with a wh- wh-question word, whether, or if; for example, Rachel lives where I like to visit the most. (The clause "where I like to visit the most" acts as the object of the verb "lives.")
d. Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence has at least three clauses, of which at least two are independent, and at least one is a dependent clause. Punctuate the compound and complex parts like the compound and complex sentences.
3. Sentence Problems
a. Faulty Parallelism
Two or more words or phrases joined by coordinating and paired conjunctions (e.g., and, or) and in contrasts and comparisons must be parallel in structure.
If the first is a noun, make all others nouns; if the first is a phrase, make all the others phrases.
Example (Faulty): I like to spend my holidays shopping, surfing the internet, bowling, and to dive.
Example (Corrected): I like to spend my holidays shopping, surfing the internet, bowling, and diving.
b. Sentence Fragments
Fragments are incomplete sentences that lack either a subject, a predicate, or both.
Example (Fragment): The sport I like the most.
Example (Correct): The sport I like the most is swimming.
c. Choppy Sentences
Choppy sentences are overly short and often lack flow. They may read as disconnected ideas.
Example (Choppy): I like swimming. Swimming has many benefits. I swim once a week. I often swim with my friends.
Example (Corrected): I like swimming because it has many benefits. I swim once a week, often with my friends.
d. Run-on Sentences
Run-on sentences are incorrectly joined independent clauses, lacking proper punctuation or conjunctions.
Example (Run-on): Talking is easy doing is another matter.
Example (Corrected): Talking is easy; doing is another matter. or Talking is easy, but doing is another matter.
e. Stringy Sentences
Stringy sentences are overly long, containing too many independent clauses strung together, often with conjunctions like and or because.
Example (Stringy): I like swimming because it has many benefits, and I swim once a week, and I often swim with my friends.
Example (Corrected): I like swimming because it has many benefits. I swim once a week, often with my friends.
f. Comma Splices
Comma splices occur when two independent clauses are joined with only a comma, instead of proper punctuation or a conjunction.
Example (Comma Splice): Talking is easy, doing is another matter.
Example (Corrected): Talking is easy; doing is another matter. or Talking is easy, but doing is another matter.
B. Tips for Writing a Paragraph Solutions
1. Structure
A paragraph consists of a group of related sentences discussing one main idea. It should stand by itself and be marked by an indentation of the first word (a half-inch or five spaces on the keyboard) from the left margin. A paragraph must be at least one sentence the shortest or 10 sentences the longest, depending on the type of essay being written. The length of a paragraph is based on the clarity level the author intends to achieve. A paragraph has three parts: topic sentence, supporting details, and concluding sentence (optional).
2. Thesis Statement and Topic Sentence
The main idea of an essay is a thesis statement, while the main idea of a paragraph is known as a topic sentence. A thesis statement is generally located in the last sentence in the introductory paragraph, while a topic sentence can be positioned at a paragraph's beginning, middle, or end position. The topic sentence of a paragraph names the topic or key issue of the paragraph, while the main idea is a part of the topic sentence that declares the specific area or scope of discussion.
3. Supporting Details
Supporting details are points that describe the main idea or develop the topic sentence. They are detailed information utilised to support, clarify, describe, extend, explain, or exemplify the main idea of a paragraph. Reasons (common beliefs, assumptions, and values) and evidence (facts, instances, and statistics) are examples of supporting details.
It can be divided into two categories: major and minor supporting details. The major supporting detail directly relates to the topic sentence as the explanation. In contrast, the minor supporting detail is dependent on the previous sentence as the elaboration of the former sentence. Below are some important types of minor supporting details (evidence) used in academic writing.
a. Facts
A fact is an objective statement of truth that can be verified and accepted as support. It can be proven by evidence-based research or empirical studies. An opinion is not accepted as support as it cannot be verified. It is not based on evidence but on a belief, view, or perception. Sometimes, a fact also needs evidence to prove that the statement is a fact.
b. Citations
A citation is how you notify your audience that some of the information in your work comes from another source. It also gives your readers the information they need to locate the source's location specifics on the References or Works Cited page. For example, a citation must be parenthetically given the author's last name and the year of publication (Clarke, 2001). Your chosen style guide will determine the precise manner in which you cite. It is important to prevent the guilt of plagiarism. Here are the two steps for citing a source:
In-text citation: A short reference in parentheses at the end of each piece of borrowed information.
References/Works Cited: A complete list describing all your cited sources on the last page of your paper.
c. Quotations
Quotation from reliable and knowledgeable sources is a minor supporting detail. Using quotation marks separates and conveys precise phrases (spoken or written) from someone else. There are two types of quotations:
Direct quotation: Copy somebody's exact words and enclose them in quotation marks.
Indirect quotation: Report someone's words without quotation marks with reporting phrases.
Reporting verbs such as state, claim, and mention and phrases such as according to and based on are used to introduce the borrowed information, including direct and indirect quotations. Below are the application rules:
Reporting verbs can appear before, in the middle of, or after the borrowed information.
Smith states that global warming is a critical issue.
Global warming,” Smith states, “is a critical issue.”
Global warming is a critical issue,” states Smith.
Reporting verbs can be used either with or without the subordinator as.
As Smith argues, global warming is a critical issue.
Smith argues that global warming is a critical issue.
Reporting verbs can be in any tense—a past tense reporting verb causes changes in verbs, pronouns, and time expressions in an indirect quotation.
Smith argued that global warming was a critical issue.
Smith said, “Global warming is happening now.”
Smith said that global warming was happening then.
4. Concluding Sentence
A concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph. Summarising or providing a final thought is optional (Oshima & Hogue, 2006). This optional component is generally recommended to summarise lengthy discussions concisely in a paragraph. By leaving an impact or remark on the readers, you can summarise the points of the body paragraph or rephrase the topic sentence.
5. Coherence
Coherence is defined as holding together, which is the quality of being logical, consistent, and smooth of the flow without a sudden jump. The four ways to achieve coherence are as follows:
Repeat the key nouns.
Use consistent pronouns.
Use transition signals to link ideas.
To sequence ideas: first, second, third, next, then, finally
To illustrate: for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, such as
To add more ideas: additionally, again, also, as well, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then
To compare: similarly, likewise, similar to, same like, equally
To contrast: but, however, in spite of, on the one hand, nonetheless, in contrast, on the contrary, still, yet
To emphasise: even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
To specify: specifically, especially, in particular, to list, to enumerate, in detail
To show cause and effect: hence, so, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently
To conclude: finally, in a word, in brief, in conclusion, in the end, on the whole, to conclude, in summary
Arrange your ideas in logical order.
6. Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the act of forming a whole unit. A paragraph means unity, which discusses one main idea from beginning to end. Discussing more than one aspect of the same idea is possible if closely related. The supporting details must directly explain or prove the main idea.
C. Tips for Writing an Essay Solutions
An essay is a piece of writing based on a specific topic that is several paragraphs long. The subject must be discussed in several paragraphs, with the main idea in each section. These body paragraphs need to be united by adding an introduction and conclusion before and after them.
1. Genres
Academic writing includes a variety of essay genres, such as persuasive essays, argumentative essays, discussion-type essays, expository essays, and narrative essays. An expository essay is one of the most common types of a five-paragraph essay in academic writing. The six types of expository essays are definition essays, topical essays, cause-effect essays, problem-solution essays, compare-and-contrast essays, and process essays.
2. Organisation
The organisation principles are the same for a paragraph and an essay, except an essay is longer. An essay has three main parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. Each part has a paragraph, except the body, which usually has more than one paragraph. Below are the tips for writing different sections in an expository essay.
a. Introduction
General statements
Introduce the general topic of the essay.
Capture the reader's interest using attention grabbers (story, statistics, facts, or historical background).
Thesis statement
It names the specific topic.
It provides a general idea of the contents.
It indicates the pattern of organisation of the essay.
It is normally located in the last sentence.
The introduction should be shorter than any of the body paragraphs.
b. Body
Develops the thesis with supporting paragraphs.
It consists of one or more paragraphs.
Each body paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic.
It must contain only one main and new idea expressed in a topic sentence.
Do not repeat the same idea in different body paragraphs.
Write an effective topic sentence with well-developed details and examples given.
Your word choice must be accurate and concise.
Write in an objective tone from the third-person perspective.
A first-person or second-person perspective is acceptable if it links to a personal experience.
To minimise grammatical, spelling, capitalisation, and punctuation errors, read and remember all the correct language uses by referring to Which One Is Correct in English?
Use sentence patterns like simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.
Avoid constructing a wordy sentence written in more than two lines.
Use transition signals or linkers to achieve effective, mature, and appropriate transitions in each well-organised body paragraph.
Make sure the length of each body paragraph is almost similar.
c. Conclusion
Summarise the main points and reaffirm the thesis (Swales & Feak, 2012).
Do not add new ideas to the conclusion.
You can summarise all the main points from the body paragraphs or rephrase the thesis statement in the introduction.
Emphasise the topic's importance, impact, or implication to end your conclusion.
3. Process
Essay writing is a recursive process instead of a linear one. There are three main stages during the process. Writing an essay in five paragraphs within a specific duration can be divided into three phases: pre-writing, writing, and post-writing.
a. Pre-writing
Spend 20-30 per cent of this stage's total writing time duration.
If you are given an essay title to write, interpret the keywords from the task, such as state, explain, express, discuss, and opinion, to determine the required essay genre.
Identify the topic or subject matter and the scopes from the keywords in the given essay title.
Make sure your ideas are confined within the scope based on the title.
The sources of ideas during the test or in-class practice can be found in the following ways:
Personal life experiences
Observation and reflection on situations
Human interactions
Use the brainstorming techniques to brainstorm and list out your points.
Listing
Clustering
Mapping
Select, sort out, and arrange your points into introduction, first body paragraph, second body paragraph, third body paragraph, and conclusion clusters.
Outline your essay based on the selected points in the clusters and write them in point form instead of complete sentences as your draft.
Ensure the thesis statement is written in the last sentence of the introduction.
Each body paragraph should include the topic sentence, supporting details (two or three sentences), and concluding sentence (optional).
The conclusion summarises all the body paragraphs' main ideas (topic sentences).
Emphasise the thesis statement instead of providing a new point in the conclusion.
b. Writing
Spend 50-60 per cent of the total writing time duration in this stage.
Follow the draft by elaborating the points into complete sentences.
Write down the points without worrying about grammar, vocabulary, or the organisation of your essay.
You can modify the points while writing based on the draft in a clear structure of introduction, body, and conclusion.
c. Post-writing
Spend 10-20 per cent of this stage's total writing time duration.
Revise your content to ensure that the essay fulfils the requirements.
Ensure your essay's total length does not exceed the word limit.
Ensure the thesis statement, main ideas, supporting details, and concluding sentences (optional) are clearly stated and well-supported.
Edit your language on grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Proofread the essay's correctness, conventions, format, and organisation (cohesiveness and coherence).
To request editing, proofreading, and translating services, refer to Does a Writer Need an Editor?
Submit or publish your essay before the deadline if relevant.
4. Mechanics
Mechanics refers to writing norms and conventions that guide communication activities among discourse community members. Readers are prone to being perplexed when writers ignore mechanical conventions. For example, you may make a mechanical mistake instead of a grammatical mistake when you understand the rules for constructing the possessive pronoun, its. In academic writing, mechanics covers the technical aspects of writing, including spelling, punctuation, capitalisation, abbreviations, contractions, acronyms, and initialisms.
a. Spelling
English words are not usually spelt exactly how they are spoken. Spelling in English follows several fundamental norms; most English words (about 75%) adhere to these rules. English's primary fundamental spelling rules are prefixes and suffixes, spelling and plurals, doubling letters, removing and adding letters, and verb forms. Adhere to established rules but account for exceptions.
b. Punctuation
Master the use of commas, semicolons, colons, and other marks. 14 punctuation marks based on their functions can be categorised into five groups as follows:
Sentence endings: period (.), question mark (?), and exclamation mark (!)
Comma (,), colon (:), and semicolon (;)
Dash – and hyphen -
Parentheses ( ), brackets [ ] , and braces { }
Apostrophe ('), quotation marks ('/"), and ellipsis (...)
There are a few variations in punctuation between British English (BE) and American English (AE). Some of these discrepancies are listed as follows:
The " . " symbol is called: a full stop (BE) or a period (AE).
The " ! " symbol is called: an exclamation mark (BE) or an exclamation point (AE).
The " ( ) " symbols are called: brackets (BE) or parentheses (AE).
The " [ ] " symbols are called: square brackets (BE) or brackets (AE).
The position of quotation marks: Joy means "happiness". (BE) or Joy means "happiness." (AE).
The punctuation for abbreviations: Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct (BE) or Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct. (AE).
c. Capitalisation
Capitalisation is the practice of writing a word with the initial letter in uppercase and the subsequent letters in lowercase. Use appropriately for titles, proper nouns, and the start of sentences. The rules of English capitalisation appear straightforward. However, there are exceptions to the rule of not capitalising in certain cases. Experienced authors use capital letters sparingly. If in doubt, it is recommended not to use them. There are 16 rules of capitalisation.
d. Abbreviations, Contractions, Acronyms, and Initialisms
Abbreviations, contractions, acronyms, and initialisms are shortened versions of words or phrases. An abbreviation is a shorter form of a word used to represent the entire; for example, Dr, by omitting letters from the word. A contraction omits letters from the middle of a word; for example, I'm. Generally, the letters in abbreviations and contractions should not be separated by full stops or spaces.
An acronym is an abbreviation of the initial letters of words in a set phrase or series of words pronounced as a single word, such as WeCWI (Web-based Cognitive Writing Instruction). An initialism consists of the first letters of words that are pronounced as separate letters when spoken, such as UiTM. Follow conventions for clarity and consistency (American Psychological Association, 2020).
References
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Author.
Azar, B. S., & Hagen, S. A. (2009). Understanding and using English grammar (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. Alliance for Excellent Education.
Ong, W. J. (1982). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. Methuen.
Oshima, A., & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing academic English (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style (4th ed.). Longman.
Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills (3rd ed.). University of Michigan Press.
Let's Recall...
Why is it essential to differentiate between independent and dependent clauses when constructing sentences, and how does this understanding impact the coherence of academic writing?
Which strategies mentioned in the text for achieving paragraph coherence and cohesion are the most effective in enhancing reader comprehension, and why do you think so?
How could you design a writing workshop based on the essay writing process described in the text to help students improve their academic writing skills?
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