Unlocking the Power of Instructional Media and Emerging Technologies

Once the learning outcomes are clearly defined, educators embark on the teaching process, utilising various instructional media to disseminate accurate information and offer guidance to learners. Instructional media encompass a wide array of tools and platforms, ranging from traditional methods to contemporary forms of mass media. Additionally, educators leverage electronic media, such as interactive videos and social media platforms, to enhance the learning experience and engage students dynamically.

Effective instruction goes beyond merely transmitting information; it involves actively engaging learners and highlighting key concepts and essential content crucial for their understanding and retention. By creating a stimulating learning environment that encourages participation and interaction, educators can foster a deeper level of comprehension and ensure that students are fully immersed in the educational process (Morrison et al., 2011).

A. Instructional Media

a. Categories

Instructional media can be categorised based on their physical attributes and sensory channels. Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience offers a framework for organising learning experiences by concreteness/abstraction, which is useful in analysing media for selecting instructional materials.

The physical characteristics of the medium determine the classification of instructional media:

• Still visual: transparency, slides, microfilm

• Motion visual: film, video

• Graphic media: drawings, posters, cartoons, graphs

• Still graphic: photographs, postcards

• 3D media: models, puppets, dioramas (replicas of scenes)

• Notice boards: blackboards, whiteboards, flannel boards, bulletin boards

• Audio media: cassettes, CD-ROMs, computers, web

• Printed media: modules, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, brochures

There are four sensory channels: visual, auditory, tactile (touch), and kinesthetic (whole-body movement). Learners benefit from different sensory channels. Instructors should design activities based on real-life experiences and effectively utilise sensory channels to enhance understanding. Effective instructional material engages learners through sensory experiences, making learning more enjoyable and motivating (Mazgon & Stefanc, 2012).

b. Types

Technology-based instruction has transformed content delivery, offering personalised computer and web-based learning experiences that facilitate self-paced and self-directed learning. Design considerations are crucial for software providing tutorials, simulations, games, and hypermedia to cater to diverse media types (Morrison et al., 2011).

Mayer (2009) distinguishes between technology-centred and learner-centred approaches in multimedia learning, emphasising the importance of leveraging technology to enrich learning (Morrison et al., 2011). Two primary forms of technology-based media are:

1. Multimedia learning: Combining elements like pictures, text, and narration to convey information (Mayer, 2009).

2. Hypermedia: Interactive and interconnected media used in technology-based software (Robyler & Doering, 2013), involving links to various media formats like text, audio, and video.

c. Purposes

Media is vital for effectively delivering instructional messages. It should be used to engage students, enhance knowledge acquisition, and promote critical thinking (Mazgon & Stefanc, 2012). Gagne (1970) highlighted the importance of instructional media in the design of educational technology, organising it based on its functions aligned with its purpose. According to Gagné, Briggs, and Wager (1992), media can support various instructional activities within Gagné's nine events of instruction.

1. Gain Attention

2. Recall Prerequisites

3. Present Objectives to Learners

4. Present New Content

5. Support Learning through Examples and Visual Elaboration

6. Elicit Student Response

7. Provide Feedback

8. Enhance Retention and Transfer

9. Assess Performance

Integrating media into lessons has been proven to enhance learning, aiding in comprehension, mental model creation, and knowledge transfer. It also boosts learner motivation by catering to diverse intelligences, fostering collaboration, teamwork, and various literacies (Roblyer & Doering, 2013).

d. Factors

Various factors influence the selection process. These include instructional methods or strategies, the type of learning task, learner characteristics, practical constraints, teacher preferences, the physical attributes of the media, and the physical environment.

In addition, practical factors such as group size, viewing and hearing distances, adaptability to learner responses, and availability of hardware and software should also be considered.

It's important to address factors such as potential affective impact on learners, accessibility and storage of equipment, training needs, budget considerations, and contingency plans for equipment failure.

When considering learning outcomes, it's important to keep the following in mind:

1. Intellectual skills: Use media that provides feedback on learner responses and avoid non-interactive features.

2. Cognitive strategies: Choose media that gives feedback on learner responses and avoid non-interactive features.

3. Verbal information: Opt for media that can deliver verbal messages and elaboration, excluding real equipment or simulators without verbal accompaniments.

4. Attitudes: Select media depicting a realistic human model and its message, excluding real equipment or simulators without verbal accompaniments.

5. Motor skills: Pick media that allow students to practice a skill directly and receive informative feedback, excluding media lacking provisions for learner responses and feedback.

Before choosing instructional media, analyse the learner's background, abilities, requirements, and other relevant details. The choice of media should be customised to meet the specific needs of the learners. The ASSURE model highlights three vital components that should be included in the student analysis.

Elton (1977) proposed categorising teaching and learning into three distinct groups. Within each category, Elton recommended specific media suitable for effective teaching and learning, as outlined below:

1. Group teaching

   1. This includes conservative lecturing, expository learning, TV, radio, and film.

   2. In this category, the teacher's role is traditional, acting as a sender and executive of the instruction process.

2. Individual teaching

   1. This encompasses long-distance learning, computer-based learning, and mediated self-instruction.

   2. Responsibilities in this category include publishing and managing learning resources, facilitating and tutoring.

3. Group learning

   1. This involves tutorials, seminars, group assignments, projects, games, simulations, and self-help groups.

   2. The roles in this category include managing and facilitating the learning process.

In their 2015 study, Dick and colleagues suggest the instructional approach should include:

1. Selection of an instructional delivery system

   1. Consider delivery methods like traditional classrooms, large group lectures, video broadcasts, or computer-based techniques.

2. Ordering and Grouping of content

   1. Organise media logically based on content complexity or attributes.

3. Learning elements

   1. Align media with instructional events for pre-instructional activities, content delivery, involvement, evaluation, and post-activity tasks.

4. Specification of student grouping:

   1. Consider how students will be grouped based on the delivery system and desired level of interaction.

Considering the practicality of the media being utilised is crucial. The following items will assist in selecting instructional media that is practical:

1. easy to obtain

2. user friendly

3. cost and time needed

4. administer's approval

5. easy to use

e. Design

The instructional media design process includes the following steps:

1. Generate ideas from experience, reading, and observation to guide students in solving learning challenges.

2. State learning objectives to specify the knowledge or skills students will acquire.

3. Analyse students based on background, prior knowledge, learning capacity, skills, language proficiency, attitude, and learning style to inform instructional methods and engagement strategies.

4. Gather and organise materials by researching resources, structuring main ideas, and creating a synopsis.

5. Convert ideas into visual aids to enhance learning and content retention.

6. Plan for student engagement through active participation methods like questions, conclusions, opinions, group discussions, and decision-making activities.

7. Review the plan to support learning and improve student performance.

8. Distribute the media once the plan is finalised and satisfactory.

B. Emerging Technologies

Thanks to the Internet of Things (IoT), computer and networking technologies enable remote control of everyday appliances through mobile devices. This interconnection of devices enhances user mobility and transforms daily routines, impacting transportation, healthcare, agriculture, and security. In 2003, Downes predicted that upcoming technologies would revolutionise learning in four ways. Schools and higher education institutions must address issues about integrating future technologies for teaching and learning.

a. Mobile Learning

In Malaysia in 2016, 68% of the population (20.6 million) were active Internet users, with 18 million (59%) being active mobile Internet users. This indicates the potential for mobile technologies in education. However, adoption remains low. The widespread use of mobile devices has revolutionized how individuals engage with information, creating vast opportunities for mobile learning environments.

Mobile learning is not new in Malaysia, and initiatives like SMS-based learning date back to 2009. Educational apps on Android and iPhones provide easy access to internet content through web pages, simulations, and videos. Mobile learning involves acquiring knowledge through interactions with content and peers, often in smaller segments, which distinguishes it from e-learning due to personalised device ownership and tailored learning modes.

Methods for mobile learning include text message delivery, educational apps, and location-based apps using GPS technology to offer real-world content and activities. Apps like Detour and Pokémon Go use augmented reality to enhance user experiences, promoting exploration of physical environments and online learning opportunities across various devices.

1. Mobigogy

Implementing mobile learning may have challenges related to device limitations, security, maintenance, and cost of implementation (Faizah Abd Majid, 2013). Instructors may lack mobile pedagogy or mobigogy (Keough, 2005). Mobigogy is a pedagogy that emphasises personalised, situated, and authentic learning in a mobile environment where learners have autonomy and access to knowledge anytime, anywhere. Teachers may need to develop new instructional pedagogies to adapt to this changing learning landscape (Faizah Abd Majid, 2013).

Here is the comparison of pedagogy, andragogy, heutagogy, and mobigogy:

1. Pedagogy: Compulsory education, teacher-centred, limited learner control, focuses on life training, promotes convergent thinking, and emphasises rote learning

2. Andragogy: Voluntary education, learner-centred, integrates learning with life experience, promotes divergent thinking, encourages active learning, blurs learning and teaching roles

3. Mobigogy: Continuous learning, learner-directed, fosters network thinking, facilitates ongoing and peer learning, embraces uncertainty, focuses on object-oriented recognition

4. Heutagogy: Self-determined learning, learner-centred, autonomy, capacity, and capability.

Mobigogy is a continuous requirement in mobile learning environments, where learners have autonomy over their learning. Learning communities enhance this dynamic learning approach. The principles of mobigogy emphasise the following:

1. Collaboration in mobile learning environments involves engaging in tasks that encourage social interactions.

2. Group learning processes, formal or informal, are facilitated through discourse, requiring a committed facilitator to support a community of learners.

3. Advanced organisers should be utilised to outline course objectives and expectations upfront.

4. Chunking ensures that information is presented in manageable portions to aid learner understanding.

The application of mobigogy considers learners' skills, device accessibility, usability, social interaction, and the learning process. Understanding learners' needs and readiness, as well as their device capabilities and learning platforms, is crucial for planning an effective mobile learning experience. Instructors are key in fostering social interaction and collaboration within learning communities to facilitate knowledge development.

b. Search Technologies

Frequently visited websites help users find information on the internet. Innovative technology aids in searches, offering insights. Search engines are useful for general searches, but specialised tools are better for academic and scientific fields. They index web pages using words and elements to compile topic-specific databases. Filters in search engines predict user needs based on browsing history (Abas, Kaur, & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

Specialised search tools like Google Scholar, PubMed, CiteSeerX, and OAIster search metadata, subject directories, and other web tools to navigate the internet.

1. Google Scholar provides summaries or full texts of scholarly articles and books.

   1. Search results show article citations, abstracts, and links to full-text copies.

2. PubMed: Biomedical literature database by NCBI at NLM, offering medical research dating back to the 1950s with some full-text archives.

3. CiteSeerX is a digital scientific literature library focusing on computer and information science.

   1. It offers citation extraction, metadata, and computation of citation statistics for related documents.

4. OAIster: Index for academically oriented digital resources from over 2,000 organizations, allowing searches by word or document attributes with descriptions and links to obtain copies.

   1. After finding articles, you can bookmark them using a browser or social bookmarking tools.

Search technologies now utilise data mining, machine learning, and knowledge discovery to extract and organise Web information efficiently. Mobile technology has changed search habits, prompting the need for mobile-friendly search engines. Human-centred technology requires search engines to adapt to users typing questions and complete sentences. Voice search on mobile devices is the next frontier.

Google Now is Google's voice-controlled digital assistant. Contextual app discovery engines suggest apps based on user behaviour. Google personalises search results based on search history and social activity. Wearable and predictive mobile technologies will soon offer advanced features like predicting relationships and recommending search queries.

c. Blog and Vlog

1. Blog

A blog is a digital diary or personal journal shared on a webpage, covering various topics and attracting followers. Weblogs are updated regularly, arranged chronologically, and allow visitor engagement through comments (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013). Effective blog posts inform, engage, and build an online community (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). Key features of blogs highlighted by Byrd (2014) and Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman (2017) include:

1. Navigation menus

2. Header, footer, content layout with sidebar

3. Post categorization

4. Archives for previous posts

5. Posts with text, images, and multimedia elements

6. Interlinking of posts and external content

7. Contact page and comment form

8. "About" page presence

Blogs can showcase recent posts, use social media sharing plugins, feature image galleries, and offer easy document printing (Byrd, 2014). Well-managed blogs enhance online visibility, community engagement, and target audience reach (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). In business, blogs establish brand authority, communicate news, and encourage interaction, knowledge exchange, and idea sharing through compelling content. Characteristics of successful blogs (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017; Collins, 2012) include:

1. Relevant, audience-specific content

2. Useful information

3. Engaging, well-written posts

4. Encouraging discussion and reader participation

5. Readable content with bullets, lists, graphs, and images

6. Appropriate post length

2. Vlog

A vlog is a video-centric type of blog gaining popularity due to affordable equipment, software, and hosting options. Major companies support vlogging, and even devices like iPods now play videos. Anyone can create and share a vlog online with a camera and internet. Vlogs differ from traditional blogs with six key success factors outlined by Khan (2016) in Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman (2017):

1. Clear goal and passion, e.g., Luxy Hair's hair tutorials.

2. Storytelling for value and connection with the audience.

3. Niche identification is crucial.

4. Targeting a specific audience is vital, like Roman Atwood's transition to family vlogging.

5. Cinematographic effects enhance visual appeal, as seen in vloggers like Nikki Phillippi and Casey Neistat.

6. Authenticity and innovation in style set vloggers apart, e.g., Adam Saleh's unique introduction.

3. Blogging/Vlogging’s Benefits for Educators

Professionals and enthusiasts use blogging and vlogging to market on social media. In education, they are used for reflections, assignments, and various benefits:

1. Sharing within the community of practice

2. Reflection on practices

3. Publishing content

4. Improve reading and information processing skills

5. Serve to improve knowledge within the community

6. Lead your professional development

7. Become a digital citizen

8. Be ahead of your students

9. Showcase student work

d. Podcasting and Vodcasting

Podcasting, a form of media with episodic audio, video, or other files, emerged during the iPod's time. It offers regular content that is accessible through downloads on portable devices. Popular podcasts like "Serial" and "StartUp" engage today's youth with narrative-centered episodes. Educational institutions are increasingly using podcasting to enhance learning and communication in the classroom.

Vodcasting (or Video-On-Demand Casting) refers to creating and distributing video content that users can access on demand rather than through traditional broadcasting or live streaming. This type of content is typically hosted on platforms such as YouTube, Vimeo, or a dedicated website where viewers can watch videos at their convenience.

Podcast listenership in the US has surged, with 98 million people (36% of the population) tuning in 2016 (Nevins, 2017). The percentage of Americans aged 12 and above listening to podcasts monthly rose from 17% in 2015 to 21% in 2016 (Baer, 2016). Radio stations like BFM in Malaysia produce popular podcasts such as Tech Talks (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

Factors fueling podcast growth are detailed below:

1. On-Demand Listening (Nevins, 2017)

   1. Streaming or downloading media offers convenience, fostering habitual listening and deep audience engagement.

2. Improved Podcast Quality (Roose, 2014)

   1. Some podcasts are high-quality productions with dedicated staff and budgets.

3. Lower Production Costs (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017)

   1. Podcast production costs are much lower than TV or radio, with successful podcasts generating substantial revenue.

4. Integration into Cars (Roose, 2014)

   1. Commuters are tuning in via platforms like Google's Android Auto and Apple's CarPlay, and the trend will shift towards internet-connected vehicles by 2025.

Podcasts, in various forms, are engaging, entertaining, and educational. In education, they promote reading habits, serve as oral report alternatives, aid in language learning, support research projects, and facilitate material review.

e. Virtual Worlds

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Immersive technologies in virtual worlds like Minecraft, Second Life, OpenSim, World of Warcraft, and Unity enable experiential learning through avatars interacting with digital elements, raising questions about their effectiveness in education.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is linked to machine learning, big data, and algorithms. In Hindi, this is exemplified through personalised Google searches, tailored Facebook news feeds, and autonomous vehicles. In self-driving cars, autonomous algorithms drive user interactions.

Professor Rose Luckin defines Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd) as computational models for school curricula, particularly in subjects like mathematics. AI creates models of learners' interactions with educational software to optimise teaching methods by identifying effective learning pathways. AIEd enhances learning tools to be more efficient, adaptable, and inclusive, preparing learners for a digital technology-driven economy with personalized virtual learning environments.

Virtual learning companions, or pedagogical agents, simulate peer interactions in virtual learning environments, adapting interactions based on cognitive and emotional reasoning. These companions engage students and promote learning transfer. Curious virtual companions with social intelligence capabilities like conversation, emotions, memory, and trust have been developed.

2. Virtual Reality (VR)

AIEd in virtual reality uses movements and gestures for communication, representing abstract concepts (Lane & Santos, 2016). Pointing gestures indicate objects, while metaphorical gestures create mathematical representations (Lane & Santos, 2016). Virtual reality incorporates physical motion as input (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

Learner's movements personalise learning experiences. AI-driven tech requires a learner model to estimate beliefs, thoughts, and goals (Lane & Santos, 2016). Diverse data from sensors like smart watches is processed in real-time using Big Data methods (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017).

SafeChild platform is an intelligent tutoring system using AI in VR to enhance intelligence (Gu, 2016). Practice level, feedback depth, and exercise sequence depend on real-time interactions (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). AI adjusts parameters based on individual learner needs (Gu, 2016).

d. Connectivism and Web 2.0

In the digital age, Downes's Connectivism theory (2005) emphasises the importance of connectivity patterns for knowledge and learning. It highlights the evolving roles of students and instructors in structuring individual knowledge and learning in the digital world, emphasising continuous learning supported by networks and electronic tools.

In today's communication landscape, a new learning model is essential to develop individuals as active societal contributors. Knowledge is distributed across networks, and learning involves recognising patterns shaped by complex networks. Engaging in cooperative activities can enhance learning efficiency.

Web 2.0 applications enable users to contextualise information, share, communicate, and collaborate. Platforms like blogs, podcasts, wikis, and social media connect a wide community, fostering collective knowledge development through interconnections and shared information exchange within the learning community (Hsu, Ching, & Grabowski, 2014).

To Sum Up...

Instructional media can be classified by physical attributes (print, static visual, moving visual) and sensory channels (audio, visual, audio-visual, tactile/kinesthetic). When choosing media, consider goals, students, methods, strategies, and practicality. To design media, follow these steps: generate ideas, state objectives, analyze students, gather materials, create visual aids, plan engagement, review, and distribute.

As an instructional designer and educator, keeping updated on evolving technology for innovative teaching methods is vital. Technology impacts play, communication, work, and education, shaping teaching methods. New educational theories are needed to explain the learning process, emphasising collaboration and interactivity. Teachers should promote connectivism to help learners establish meaningful knowledge connections. Instructional designers must integrate technology effectively to enhance student learning.

References

• Abas, Z. W., Kaur, J., & Tengku Shariman, T. N. (2017). Instructional media in the digital age. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Open University Malaysia.

• Alias, N., DeWitt, D., & Siraj, S. (2013). Effective blog usage in education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.

• Byrd, D. (2014). Blogging for community engagement. New York, NY: Blog Basics Publishing.

• Collins, R. (2012). Characteristics of successful blogs. San Francisco, CA: Page One Power.

• Education Encyclopedia: State University. (2018). Instructional media. Retrieved from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2211/Media-Learning.html

• Faizah Abd Majid. (2013). Challenges of implementing mobile learning. Bangi, Malaysia: Pusat Pembangunan Akademik, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

• Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.

• Gu, Y. (2016). SafeChild: AI in virtual reality for education. London, England: Pearson.

• Hsu, Y. C., Ching, Y. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (2014). Connectivism and Web 2.0 in education. New York, NY: Springer.

• Keough, M. (2005). Mobigogy: Mobile learning pedagogy. London, England: Learning and Skills Development Agency.

• Khan, J. (2016). Vlogging success factors. Karachi, Pakistan: Vlogging.pk.

• Lane, H. C., & Santos, O. C. (2016). Virtual reality in education. New York, NY: Springer.

• Mazgon, J., & Stefanc, D. (2012). Effective instructional material design. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(3), 174-188.

• Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

• Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2011). Designing effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

• Nevins, J. (2017). On-demand podcast listening. Austin, TX: Silicon Hills.

• Roblyer, M. D., & Doering, A. H. (2013). Integrating educational technology into teaching (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

• Roose, K. (2014). Podcasting's rise and quality improvement. New York, NY: Daily Intelligencer.

Let's Recall...

1. What are the different categories of instructional media based on their physical attributes and sensory channels?

2. How has technology-based instruction transformed content delivery and learner engagement?

3. Why is integrating media into lessons crucial for enhancing learning and motivation?

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